Introduction
Seeing the adult
Indonesian women today and compare to those lived on their adulthood before
1970s, there has been significant changes in their life course trajectories. In
general, they have experienced better health, better education and better
mobility, having more self-advancement and self-actualization time. It started
with the implementation of the National Family Planning program in the early
1970s, which introduced the campaign of having “small and prosperous family”
across the country. This program had not only changed the demographic
characteristic but also empowered Indonesian women and brought progress to their
self-development (Robinson & Bessell, 2002, pp.
73-75). Before the program started, the total fertility rate was 5.61
and it significantly decreased to 2.23 in 2010. The maternal mortality ratio also
dropped from 602 per 100,000 mothers in 1970 to 220 in 2010. Whereas in the
data of women’s life expectancy rose from 52.47 years old in 1970 to 73.69 years
old in 2010 (Statistik, 2013). With all of these changes, women began to catch-up men, freed to
enter and access to the education and participate in public domains and the
labor market.
However as
the consequence to the above demographic changes over the past three decades,
and also as to the pressure of modernization, the traditional family structures
have also changed. Indonesian families became getting smaller. The program has
given a form of control to women toward the size of their family. If previously
most of Indonesian family recognized to have more than five children within a
household, the number decreased into two children per-household (Herartri, 2004). As the family getting smaller and the parents have more focused
to raise their children with better way, the program had also opened up an opportunity
to the children on that era to have better lives with better welfare, compared
to the children lived before 1970. Furthermore, as impact to the program, women
start delay the age of marriage, from previously the median age is 16 years old
before 1970, to their late 20s or even early 30s (Herartri, 2004). As they entered better and higher education, it led them to
participate into the employment and having their independence to economy,
politic and other social aspect of lives. In addition, as women become more
independent, the new phenomena arises, people start seeing many urban women in
Indonesia remains living as single independent women. Despite many of them are still
facing challenges from the social norms, but their number keep increased and
savored to have more freedom to establish their career and independent
lifestyles.
This paper
explores some of the key dimensions of the life course research namely (1) the
cohort generation and historical time, (2) the human agency, and (3) the linked
lives. The example used as describe above is the decreasing of fertility rate
and how it influences the life course pathway of Indonesian women and their
intergenerational relationships. To limit the scope, this paper will only
review on the life course trajectory of the adult Indonesian women living in
urban areas such as in Jakarta as the capital city of Indonesia, born from the
cohort of 1970-1980, and living singles either because they delayed their
marriage, decided to live as singles and unmarried, or ever married and decided
to live alone afterward. This paper will further discussed on its benefits and the
challenges to the life course research.
Key Dimension 1: Cohort Generation and
Historical Time
This paper
argues that cohort generation and the historical time are one of the key
dimensions in the life course research, especially in related to the example
used in this paper. It is important to acknowledge this dimension in order to
have better understanding to the new social phenomenon on the increased number
of Indonesian women living alone and how they influenced the family structures
and the intergenerational relationships.
One way to
understand it is by reviewing the intersection of their live history on how
their cohort generation has been built and shaped their current stages of
pathways. This paper believes that each new cohort generations are reflected
the new environmental and life course variation of human being. This is as
according to what states by Ryder (1965, p. 884) whom seen cohort as “a vehicle” which brought the new social
transformation and introducing new postures in the society. In this context,
the increased of urban women who have better education and enjoy living alone, break
the social norm to be unmarried and have freedom to established their career
path are as a result of the successful National Family Planning Program in
early 1970. They are coming from the cohort generation born in between
1970-1980. Compared to the women coming from the previous cohort, this
generation flavors better lives as a result to the decreased of fertility rate
and small size family structures. The program was not only succeed in controlling
the overall population in the country, but it especially enabled the families
on that era to improved the quality of maternal and child welfare, and in
general the Indonesian human resources as assets to development (Herartri, 2004, pp. 128-130). As result to that, the children on those eras, whom are now on
the adult stage of their life course, became the first generation in the nation
that accessed better education and better health provision, led their current
stage of lives become more independent, have higher economic status and welfare.
This cohort is the vehicle that brought along their generations into the new
social transformation in the Indonesian society.
In order to
understand how a social change makes differences in the life course and it
impacts the society, this paper refers to what suggest by Elder and Pellerin (1998, pp. 265-267), to link the social history and human lives by using three
strategies which are the generational analysis, cohort comparisons, and the
assessment of a particular form of social change. Therefore this domain is
considered important to review this new phenomenon in Indonesia, as it
specifying the linkage between the historical times when the National Family
Planning Program introduced and the current lives of the urban women who unmarried,
live alone on their adulthood and how they affect the intergenerational
relationships across their life course.
Key Dimension 2: Human Agency
In the last
three decades, women’s life trajectories in Indonesia, especially in related to
the level of education and employment patterns, have shown similar rate as men’s
trajectories (Robinson & Bessell, 2002, pp.
229-231). In 1990 data shown that almost one-third of population in
Indonesia lived in the urban areas, half of them are women and many of them are
now have access to better education. Despite they are still facing obstacles
and challenges to fully participate in the public domains, many of those Indonesian
women are now filling work opportunities available on the market and have
started establish their career (Soetjipto, 2002).
As the
education improved and wider opportunities are opened up in many areas, women
in Indonesia are having better and equal opportunities to make choices about
their own lives. Their personal agency and self- development are recognized and
progressed across the time. Compared to their former generations, these urban
women from cohort of generation X have more control over themselves as
individuals. They have ability to make own self- decision on when to start or
delay the family formation, control the size of the family, including decisions
to be childlessness, divorced, re-married or stay single. Elder Shanahan and Glen H
Elder (2002) point out that people are active developing agents, they can make
choices over the course of their life that
will influence their future development. Therefore as a consequence with
women become more empowered, this all have led to a diversification of
Indonesian’s women life course trajectories over time in the urban areas, with
more women decided to have a solo living and priorities their life on career or
just as independent individual and unmarried. This is as according to what
states by Elder and Pellerin (1998, pp. 145-160) that by exercising human
agency, an individual has participated in constructing their life and made a
fundamental changed over their life-course. As the personal power of Indonesian
women has embedded within them by the creation of a better and supporting environment,
this has enabled women to mobilize their own power to achieve their goals and
participate into the public arenas which previously occupied only by male.
In related
to this, Albert Bandura (1986) highlights on the importance on the concept of “self-efficacy”
and “self-expectation” which contribute to stimulate an individual to
accomplish whatever their goals. In this context, as a result to the National Family
Planning program which effected to the decrease of fertility, household size,
and living arrangement, the Indonesian women have starting to built up their
personal competence (self efficacy) and broader up their self expectation to
continue their participation on the socio-economic spheres of development. In
addition, Hareven (2000) makes note on the contribution of the human agency into the life
course perspective. He argues that this domain gave most influenced
contribution to the overall approach. He further points out that personal
choices, decisions and external circumstances in earlier phase of life have
implications for today and tomorrow’s well being. This is relevant to the phenomenon on the
rising number of urban women living alone in Indonesia, which influenced by the
development of women empowerment and the ability they have today to make their
own choices and decisions toward their life.
Key Dimension 3: Linked Live
Individual, their
(multigenerational) families and other groups or
collectivities within society are interconnected
and influent each other. The interdependence of human lives and how the interwoven
relationships determined an individual’s behavior are some of the important
features within the life course perspective. This is related to what argue by Moen
and Hernandez (2009, p. 278) that the life course research focus on the intersection of
individual, families, communities, network and organization’s lives. Furthermore,
they both believe that it is the relationships that shaped one’s beliefs,
behavior and decision-making. Therefore this paper argues that linked live is another
important key domains in life course research, especially in related to the
example used here.
The
declining of fertility rate and increased number of women participation on
economic activities, have impacted to the trend of arising single living alone
women at the urban areas. This paper believes that this is linked with the
choice that women can independently made by themselves, to delay married and
childbirth, and in this context, make their own decision to be unmarried, ever
married and childless towards their adulthood trajectories. However, despite
all the progress that women have been able to made today, still their lives
cannot be separated and linked with the other family members or any other
social support, outside their life. As important as economic resources, the
familial resources are another important element that support the living
arrangement and care needs of an individual (Gaymu, Delbes, Springer, Binet,
& Kalogirou, 2006, pp. 241-262). In
Indonesian culture, even with the changed of family formulation such as on the
size of household structures, family still consider as the source of support
and control. Parent-children, including the multigenerational relationship such
as grandparents to grandchildren, are all linked across their lives. This is as
according to what argues by Hagestad (1982, pp. 485-499) that as individual, people are always embedded within their
multigenerational family structures. In many cases, whatever life event we
experience, it may influence the dynamics of our family system. For example, in
term of understanding the effects of the arising number on women living alone
to their intergenerational relationships, attention might be given to the issues
on what would be different when this group enter their later phase of life,
will they still have similar or different social and financial resources, what
kind of living arrangements and care needs that they may need as they enter “the
winter” of their life, will those be provided by their extended families or
professional services, and to those who may not economically active, how will
they access social and economic safety net. All of these are linked and
interwoven with another people, their families, communities and organizations,
outside their lives.
In related
to the above, many former studies found and underlined that families, either by
parents, spouses, children or siblings, are those primarily provide an informal
care in current and later-life of an individual (Pickard, Wittenberg,
Comas-Herrera, King, & Malley, 2007, pp. 353-366). Furthermore, the study of Pickard et all also indicate another
type of interconnectedness between individuals and their surrounding
communities/network/organization, which is shown on the correlation between the
individual’s capacity to live alone and their ability to purchase professional
services to support their life. Therefore in order to design appropriate policy
to meet the needs of this population group on the future, understanding the
linked lives between the risings urban women living alone and their surroundings
is an important domain to be acknowledged in the study of life course.
What are the Advantages?
In related to the example used in this paper, the study of life
course provides us with a useful conceptual tool to understand social
phenomenon within a society, and its relationship between time in historical
setting and human behavior. It gives us new glasses to see things clearly on
how chronological age, common life transitions, interactions and relationships,
and social change shaped people’s lives across their life course.
The world
and the social norms may not able to fully understand a person’s life and
decisions that they made, which may potentially changed and effected the
community as it creates a new phenomenon such as on the increased of single
women living alone. The life course and its dimensions such as time, human
agency and the linked lives, help us to understand this matter. We might begin
by looking into the event history of individuals, or the sequence of their
life’s events, experiences and transitions in their life, and how those will
shape the patterns of their lives, how it synchronized with the lives of other
family members, and how it relates with the socio-cultures surroundings their
life. Elder (1998b, p. 264) argues that investigating the intersection of life history will
give us a clear view on how the cohort shaped on the past and how it will also
shape its future. Elisabeth D Hutchison (2010, pp.
10-15), in similarity to what states by Elder, also highlights that the
life course research recognizes the linkages between the experiences during
childhood, adolescent and the later experiences in adulthood, and how it
influence not only to the human behavior but also to the changes within society.
Because the
life course also emphasis its study on the linked lives and recognize the
intergenerational relationships and the interdependence of people’s lives,
therefore the other advantage that this paper would argue is on how the
approach acknowledges the human agency, the strength that people embedded
within their life and their capacity to make change over their life span, and
their contribution to actively participate in constructing the world and shape
the environment. One of the classic studies in social sciences, “The Polish
Peasant in Europe and America” by Thomas and Znaniecky (1927), could be the example on how the lives of Polish immigrants
introduced the world with the concept of “immigration generations” and changed
the traditional norms at that time with a period of family disorganizations. In
the same way, Hutchison (2010, pp. 3-5) also states that the study of life course enable us to see
human’s capability in making choices and how it can construct not only one
individual’s life journeys, but also the wider social world.
In
addition, the life course research with its event-based approach and how it
provides link to the history of human lives also offers an advantage to the
possibilities for preventive interventions. With its benefits as new glasses to
see things clearly as describe above, this will also lead us not only to
practice a culturally sensitivity to the social changes when it happen, but will
also enable us to identify risks factor that may possible challenge on the
future, and design an earlier strategy to overcome it and create appropriate
policies to support social justice, such as for the later lives of today’s
midlife urban women living alone in Indonesia. By using the research of life
course, Indonesia could have benefits to design an anticipated policy to
respond the future need and demand for public care or welfare provision for
those living alone in their later life.
What are the
Challenges?
Although the
life course perspective and research give attention to the life events and the
patterns of human behavior, still there some challenges identified in related
to the example used in this paper. This paper argues that understanding the
complexity of the method, especially whenever it related to the human lives,
the timing and their environment, would be one of the biggest challenges as point
out here.
It is
important to note that studying people lives and how it affects their
surroundings communities and societies may not be easy, as it comprised of
diversity and heterogeneity. Individual’s trajectory across their life course
affected not only to their families but also to the other world outside the
individual’s him or her self. Across the time, one’s life stages and
transitions are linked with their later phases of lives and also interwoven
with their surrounding peoples (Glen H Elder & Johnson, 2000,
pp. 41-48). As the world that we live in is rapidly changing and people are
very dynamics and different across the globe, then the challenges is how to
best deal with this complexity, so that the method can be used globally in many
different settings and societies. In
related to this, Elder (1998a, pp. 939-941) also states that as human lives evolve over time, the challenge
of the study in life course would be on how to widely recognize on the linkages
between changes in the society, development of people’s trajectories and social
pathway.
Another
challenges captured in related to the example used in this paper is how to link
the phenomenon of these arising urban midlife women with their later phase of
life when they enter the aging stage. Where both Giele (1978) and Elder (1994, pp. 4-19) believe that utilizing the panel studies and longitudinal surveys
would give benefits to capture the interaction of many different effects and
its impacts on life event over time, the limitation would be on the lack of
data available and as its relatively expensive to collect it in Indonesia. This
due to the current central data in the state has not yet fully aware and organized
on the need for having national panel or longitudinal data type of collection
for its public and social policy. Furthermore
Laub and Sampson (1993, pp. 301-305) underline on the importance to also have both qualitative and quantitative
type of data to develop a better understanding on the role of life course
dimensions such as cohort and historical time, the human agency and the linked
lives to the individual development over the time. But this would be the
challenge on how to manage, to organize and to collect the type of data, which fit
and match with the needs of life course research due to the limitations to the
different method used and data currently available in the country.
Conclusion
Living alone
may currently a common standard of living arrangement for people live in the
United States, Europe and in any other part of the world. However this is a new
emerging phenomenon raised in the urban areas in Indonesia. The former National
Family Planning program launched in the state had contributed in bring changes
to the trajectories of Indonesian women, especially to the cohort generation
born in between 1970-1980. As Indonesian women have better access and opportunity
in education, health and other public domains, this has led them to be more
empowered towards themselves and improved their human capability to control and
manage their own lives. Over the time, people are now start seeing a new
phenomenon of many urban women in Indonesia living alone, enjoy their
independence by building their career pathways and break the traditional norms
to be single and unmarried.
In order to
understand why this new phenomenon arises, how will it impact the community and
shape the nation, and how to anticipate the social changes and the later life
of this group of population on the future, the life course perspective offers a
tool and conceptual framework to answer those challenges, especially by
highlighting its key domains on the cohort generation and historical time to
focuses on which individuals belong to which groups, the human agency to help
to understand on the individual actions, and the linked lives to see the interaction
of individuals with the societal institutions and other groups outside their
life.
I notice that every of us have different attitudes towards Sunset. I myself never get bored to praise the view, and every time I see Sunset I feel like that's my first time seeing it. Never get boring to enjoy it. Never get boring to take photos of it. Never get boring to even make video of it. As if, I am so afraid that there will be no Sunset can be seen during our lifetime! 